Kamil Perry
The history of cheese and cheesemaking in the United States is closely tied to the country's colonial past and the exploitation of Indigenous and enslaved people. In the Southern United States, plantation complexes were common from the 17th to the 20th century, and enslaved people were forced to labour on these plantations to produce crops and create wealth for a white elite. While the majority of these plantations did not have grand mansions, they did feature a range of structures for processing and storing crops, preparing food, and sheltering animals. Cheese production in the US was influenced by European techniques, with Puritans bringing cheese recipes and domesticated livestock to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629. Cheddar was a popular variety, and by 1790, Americans were exporting it back to England. Enslaved women also played a role in cheesemaking, with those in Rhode Island producing the widely acclaimed Narragansett cheese in the 18th century.
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What You'll Learn
Enslaved women worked as cheesemakers
The history of cheese-making in the United States is closely tied to the history of colonisation and slavery. In the 17th century, as Europeans colonised and extracted resources from the Americas, they brought dairy animals and other livestock with them. This marked the beginning of dairy farming in the New World, with enslaved people bearing the brunt of the labour.
In the early 18th century, the Naragansett Plantations in Rhode Island dominated the American slave trade. These were huge farms owned by wealthy white families and worked by enslaved people. On these plantations, gendered roles were enforced, with enslaved women working as dairy maids and cheesemakers. The Cheshire-inspired Narragansett cheese produced by these women became widely known for its quality and was considered the best cheese produced in New England at the time.
The contributions of enslaved women to the cheese industry extended beyond the boundaries of the Naragansett Plantations. As colonists moved west and south, they brought dairy animals, butter, and cheese with them, displacing Indigenous people and claiming land for agriculture. Cheddar was a particularly important export during this time, and by the mid-1600s, New England was exporting large quantities of cheese and butter to supply plantations in the West Indies, which relied on the labour of enslaved Africans.
The exact methods and conditions under which enslaved women made cheese on these plantations are not well documented. However, it is known that cheese-making was a highly skilled and labour-intensive process, requiring knowledge of dairy science and techniques passed down through generations. Enslaved women would have been responsible for milking the cows, separating the milk into curds and whey, pressing and shaping the curds, and ageing the cheese to develop flavour.
The legacy of the cheese-making practices of enslaved women is complex. On the one hand, it contributed to the development of a thriving cheese industry in the United States, with American cheesemakers eventually developing their own unique varieties, such as "American cheese". On the other hand, it is important to recognise the exploitation and horrific conditions that made this labour possible.
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Cheddar was a popular export
The popularity of cheddar as an export can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, it was a sturdy and adaptable cheese that could withstand the extreme seasonal temperature and humidity fluctuations in colonial conditions. This made it a reliable choice for export and ensured a longer shelf life during transportation. Additionally, cheddar had a great taste that was well-liked by consumers, contributing to its popularity.
The production of cheese in the colonies was influenced by European traditions, particularly English and Cheshire-style cheeses brought by Puritan colonists from strong cheesemaking regions of England. The techniques and recipes they introduced laid the foundation for cheesemaking in the United States, including the popularisation of cheddar.
The history of cheesemaking in the context of Southern plantations is also intertwined with the contributions of enslaved Africans and African-Americans. On large farms and plantations in Rhode Island, such as the Narragansett Plantations, enslaved women worked as dairy maids and cheesemakers. The Narragansett cheese produced by these women in the 18th century became renowned for its quality and was considered the best cheese made in New England.
While the export of cheddar played a significant role in the early American cheese industry, it is important to recognise that the labour and knowledge of enslaved people contributed significantly to the development and success of cheesemaking practices in the colonies.
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Cheese was made at home
The art of cheesemaking is believed to have originated with the domestication of milk-producing animals, primarily sheep, which began 8-10,000 years ago. The practice of cheesemaking is referred to in ancient Greek mythology, and evidence of cheesemaking has been found in Egyptian tomb murals dating back over 4,000 years. Cheese may have been discovered accidentally by storing milk in containers made from animal stomachs, which contain rennet, an enzyme that causes milk to coagulate and separate into curds and whey. Another theory suggests that cheese was made by salting curdled milk for preservation.
In the context of Southern plantations in America, enslaved people, particularly women, were forced to work as dairy maids and cheesemakers. The gendered roles on English farms were reflected on these plantations. The Cheshire-inspired Narragansett cheese produced by enslaved women in Rhode Island in the 18th century became renowned for its quality and was considered the best cheese produced in New England.
Southern plantations in America, with their mild temperate climate, plentiful rainfall, and fertile soils, were ideal for large-scale agriculture and the flourishing of large plantations. These plantations were generally self-sufficient settlements that relied on the forced labor of enslaved people, primarily from Africa, to produce crops and create wealth for a white elite. The materials for the plantation buildings were often sourced from the estate, with lumber obtained from forested areas and bricks produced onsite from sand and clay.
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Plantation buildings were made from onsite materials
Plantation buildings were constructed using materials sourced from the lands of the estate. The type of materials used depended on the availability of resources on the property. For example, if suitable stone was available, it was used. Lumber was obtained from forested areas of the plantation, and bricks were produced onsite from sand and clay. These bricks were then dried and fired in a kiln. Tabby was a common building material on the southern Sea Islands.
The architectural style of plantation buildings varied depending on the region and the type of crop being produced. Plantation complexes in the Southern United States typically included a variety of structures beyond the main residence, such as pens for livestock, cookhouses, pantries, washhouses, smokehouses, chicken houses, ice houses, dairies, barns, and mills. These buildings were often arranged around a courtyard behind the main house, known as the kitchen yard.
The main residence, also known as the plantation house, was the most substantial and elaborate structure within the complex. It served as a symbol of the planter's wealth and social status. While some plantation houses were initially planned as grand mansions, many others started as rudimentary structures that were expanded and improved over time as the owner's fortunes grew. The architectural style of these houses could vary, with influences from British, French, and Spanish colonial styles, as well as later neoclassicism and revival styles.
In addition to the main residence, a crucial residential structure on larger plantations was the overseer's house. The overseer was responsible for ensuring the success of the estate, including meeting production quotas and managing the enslaved labour force. Their dwelling was typically modest and located near the cabins of the enslaved workers, reflecting their lower social status compared to the planter.
The housing for the enslaved people, once a common and distinctive feature of the plantation landscape, has largely disappeared over time. Many of these structures were insubstantial to begin with, and only the better-built examples tended to survive and were often repurposed after emancipation.
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Cheese may have been discovered by accident
Another possible explanation for the accidental discovery of cheese is the practice of salting curdled milk for preservation. A third scenario suggests that the addition of fruit juices to milk, which would curdle the milk due to the acid in the juice, may have played a role in the discovery of cheese.
Cheese was likely first made in Europe, Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara. The earliest written evidence of cheese is in Sumerian cuneiform texts from the early second millennium BC. Preserved cheese dating back to 1615 BC was discovered in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China. Visual evidence of Egyptian cheesemaking has been found in tomb murals dating back to approximately 2000 BC. Cheese was also referenced in ancient Greek mythology, with Aristaeus credited as the discoverer of cheese.
Cheese production was well-established in the American colonies, with colonists from England serving as a customer base for locally made cheeses. Cheddar was particularly important in the early North American export market, with New England exporting large quantities of cheese to supply plantations in the West Indies. Dairy farming thrived in New England due to the rum industry, which was sustained by the purchase of molasses, a byproduct of sugar refining in the Atlantic slave trade. Enslaved Africans were also involved in cheesemaking, with women working as dairy maids and cheesemakers on the Naragansett Plantations in Rhode Island, producing the widely renowned Narragansett cheese in the 18th century.
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Frequently asked questions
Enslaved people were forced to produce crops to create wealth for a white elite. In Rhode Island, enslaved women worked as dairy maids and cheesemakers. The Cheshire-inspired Narragansett cheese produced by these women in the 18th century became widely known for its quality and was considered the best cheese produced in New England.
Most early American cheeses were made at home and sold in local markets. Cheddar was paramount in the early North American export market. However, there were also other types of cheese produced throughout Central and South America that were modelled on longer-aged European cheeses. For example, Italian-inspired Reggianito is produced in Uruguay and Argentina, while Swiss influence has resulted in a Gruyere-style cheese being produced.
Plantation complexes were common on agricultural plantations in the Southern United States from the 17th century into the 20th century. They included everything from the main residence down to the pens for livestock. The vast majority of plantations did not have grand mansions centred on huge acreage. Instead, they were generally self-sufficient settlements that relied on the forced labour of enslaved people.
The practice of cheese-making is closely related to the domestication of milk-producing animals, primarily sheep, which began 8-10,000 years ago. The earliest written evidence of cheese-making is in the Sumerian cuneiform texts of the Third Dynasty of Ur, dated at the start of the second millennium BC.
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