Kamil Perry
Enzymes play a significant role in the process of cheesemaking. They are used to initiate specific reactions that contribute to the desired flavour, texture, and overall quality of the final product. The traditional enzyme used in cheesemaking is rennet, derived from the stomachs of ruminant mammals, primarily calves and goats. Rennet contains the key enzyme, chymosin, which curdles milk by cleaving casein, the main protein in milk. However, due to ethical concerns and limited availability, alternative sources of enzymes have been explored, including microbial, plant-based, and genetically engineered options. These enzymes offer advantages in terms of yield, taste, and suitability for vegetarian and vegan diets. The specific enzymes used in cheesemaking can vary depending on the type of cheese being produced, with some cheeses requiring specific enzymes to achieve their distinctive characteristics.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Enzymes used in cheese making | Rennet, Chymosin, Bovine Pepsin, Lipase, Lactase, Microbial Rennet, Fermented Rennet, Protease, Sulphydryl Oxidase, Lactoperoxidase, Glucose Oxidase, Catalase, Lysozyme, Superoxide Dismutase, and more |
| Sources of enzymes | Animal (from the stomachs of ruminant mammals), microbial, vegetable, and plant sources |
| Function | Coagulate milk, improve flavour, increase shelf life, curdle milk, separate milk into curds and whey, and more |
| Types of cheese | Rennet is used in harder cheeses like Cheddar, Gruyère, Parmesan, and Romano. Fermentation-produced chymosin is used in industrial cheesemaking in North America and Europe. Blue cheese gets its peppery flavour from enzymes. |
| Vegetarian options | Some cheeses use only vegetable or microbial enzymes and are labelled "Vegetarian Friendly/Suitable". Over 80% of cheese consumed in North America is made from non-animal sources. |
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What You'll Learn
Rennet: a complex set of enzymes from ruminant mammals
Rennet is a complex set of enzymes produced in the stomachs of ruminant mammals. It is a mixture containing the active enzyme chymosin, which curdles the casein in milk. Rennet also contains other enzymes, such as pepsin and a lipase. Rennet's traditional function in cheese production is to separate milk into solid curds and liquid whey. About 1 gram of rennet solution can typically coagulate 2 to 4 litres of milk.
The process of obtaining rennet involves milling deep-frozen ruminant stomachs and placing them in an enzyme-extracting solution. The crude rennet extract is then activated by adding acid, as the enzymes in the stomach are produced in an inactive form and are activated by stomach acid. The acid is then neutralized, and the rennet extract undergoes several stages of filtration and concentration until it reaches a typical potency of about 1:15,000. This means that 1 gram of extract can coagulate 15 kg of milk. One kilogram of rennet extract contains approximately 0.7 grams of active enzymes, with the remainder being water, salt, and occasionally sodium benzoate (E211) for preservation.
Due to the limited availability of mammalian stomachs for rennet production, cheese makers have explored alternative methods of milk coagulation since Roman times. Various plants, such as fig juice, Galium species, dried caper leaves, nettles, thistles, and mallow, possess coagulating properties and can be used as substitutes for animal rennet. Additionally, microbial sources and genetic engineering have played a significant role in developing alternatives to animal rennet.
Today, most cheese is made using chymosin derived from bacterial sources, and less than 5% of cheese in the United States is produced using animal rennet. The use of bioengineered chymosin, created by cloning calf prochymosin genes into microorganisms, is associated with up to 70% of cheese production. This method not only saves the lives of calves but also addresses ethical concerns for those allergic to consuming foods made with genetically modified organisms.
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Chymosin: a key component of rennet
Chymosin is a protease enzyme that curdles the casein in milk. It is the key component of rennet, a complex set of enzymes produced in the stomachs of ruminant mammals. Rennet is traditionally used to separate milk into solid curds and liquid whey, which are used in cheese production.
Chymosin is a crucial enzyme in cheesemaking, as it speeds up the coagulation of casein and produces a stronger curd. This process is essential for most cheeses, as it allows curdling at a lower acidity, which is necessary for specific cheese types. Casein is the main protein in milk, and chymosin's action on it results in the removal of the slightly negatively charged glycomacropeptide (GMP). As negative charges repel each other, the presence of GMP prevents casein micelles from adhering to each other. Thus, chymosin's cleavage of GMP enables the casein micelles to bind together, forming a solid curd.
In addition to its role in traditional cheesemaking, chymosin has become increasingly important in the development of vegetarian and vegan cheeses. Traditionally, rennet was derived from the stomachs of ruminant animals, particularly calves, which made cheese unsuitable for some vegetarians. However, advancements in biotechnology have led to the creation of fermentation-produced chymosin (FPC). This bioengineered chymosin is identical to that produced by animals but is made through fermentation of certain bacteria, fungi, or yeasts. FPC does not contain any GMO or GMO DNA, addressing ethical concerns related to genetically modified organisms.
FPC has been commercially available since 1990 and is widely used in industrial cheesemaking in North America and Europe. It is less expensive than animal rennet and offers a standardized quantity per unit of milk, making it a commercially viable alternative. The use of FPC ensures that cheese is suitable for vegetarians and those who wish to avoid animal-based ingredients.
Overall, chymosin is a critical enzyme in cheesemaking, playing a key role in curdling milk and producing solid curds. The development of FPC has expanded the possibilities for creating vegetarian and vegan cheeses, while also addressing economic and standardization considerations in the cheese industry.
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Sources of enzymes: animal, vegetable, microbial, and more
Enzymes are commonly used in cheese-making to initiate specific reactions with precise outcomes. The sources of enzymes used in cheese-making can vary, and they can be classified into several categories, including animal, vegetable, microbial, and more.
Animal Sources
Animal enzymes used in cheese-making are traditionally obtained from the stomachs of ruminant mammals, such as calves, goats, and lambs. This natural product is called rennet, which contains a complex set of enzymes, including chymosin, pepsin, and lipase. Rennet has been used for centuries to separate milk into curds and whey, and less than 5% of cheese in the United States is still made using animal rennet. However, due to limited availability and ethical concerns, cheese makers have been exploring alternative sources of enzymes.
Vegetable Sources
Vegetable enzymes used in cheese-making can be derived from various plants, including fig juice, as suggested by Homer in the Iliad. Other plant sources include species of Galium, dried caper leaves, nettles, thistles, and mallow. Some traditional Mediterranean cheeses use enzymes from thistle or Cynara (artichokes and cardoons). Vegetable rennet is suitable for producing kosher, halal, and vegetarian cheeses.
Microbial Sources
Microbial enzymes, such as fermentation-produced chymosin (FPC), have gained popularity in industrial cheesemaking due to their lower cost and efficiency compared to animal rennet. These enzymes are often produced by genetically engineering bacteria, fungi, or yeasts to express recombinant chymosin. Microbial coagulants have improved over time, resulting in high-quality cheeses, including vegan options. Additionally, microbial proteases are valuable due to their ease of production, use, and recovery.
Other Sources
Enzymes used in cheese-making can also come from other sources, such as fungi and genetic engineering. For example, the mold Rhizomucor miehei produces proteolytic enzymes that can be used in cheese-making. Furthermore, genetic engineering has allowed for the production of bioengineered chymosin, which is created by cloning calf prochymosin genes into microorganisms. This bioengineered enzyme is widely used, saving the lives of calves and addressing ethical concerns.
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Enzymes in the US: often a catch-all term for catalysts
Enzymes are essential in the cheesemaking process, playing a role in milk coagulation, flavour development, and shelf life extension. In the United States, the term "enzymes" on food labels often serves as a catch-all phrase for catalysts, encompassing a range of ingredients and sources. This lack of specificity can make it challenging for consumers, especially those with dietary restrictions, to identify the exact nature of the enzymes used.
Rennet, a complex set of enzymes derived from the stomachs of ruminant mammals, has traditionally been used in cheesemaking. Chymosin, its primary component, curdles the casein in milk, initiating the coagulation process. However, due to limited availability and ethical concerns, alternative sources of chymosin have been explored, including microbial, plant, and fungal sources. This shift towards non-animal sources is evident in North America, where over 80% of cheese is made from non-animal enzymes.
One notable alternative is fermentation-produced chymosin (FPC), which is identical to animal-derived chymosin but produced through microbial fermentation. FPC was the first artificially synthesized enzyme approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, offering a commercially viable and efficient option for industrial cheesemaking. Its use in hard cheeses has been widespread, with approximately 60% of US hard cheeses utilising FPC.
Other enzymes used in cheesemaking include protease, which reduces allergic properties in bovine milk products, and lipase, which enhances flavour development, particularly in Swiss cheese. Additionally, lactase is used to develop lactose-free products for lactose-intolerant individuals. The use of enzymes in cheesemaking extends beyond coagulation, as they contribute to flavour development during the ripening process, where bacteria and fungi break down proteins, creating complex and highly flavoured molecules.
While the term "enzymes" on cheese labels in the US may be a catch-all, consumers can look for additional clues on packaging. Cheeses that use only vegetable or microbial enzymes may label themselves as "Vegetarian Friendly/Suitable". However, there is currently no standard for specifying the source of enzymes, and consumers concerned about specific ingredients or sources are encouraged to research products with transparent labelling.
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Enzymes in cheese ageing: fungi like Penicillium are used
Enzymes play a crucial role in the cheese-making process, from milk coagulation to ageing and flavour development. While traditional animal rennet, derived from the stomachs of ruminant mammals, has been used for centuries, cheese makers have explored alternative sources of enzymes to coagulate milk. These include microbial, plant-based, and fungal sources. Fungi, such as Penicillium, have emerged as a popular choice for cheese ageing and flavour development, especially in blue-veined cheeses.
Penicillium roqueforti, a saprophytic fungus commonly found in nature, is a key player in the production of blue cheeses. This fungus can be isolated from soil, decaying organic matter, and plants. Its ability to grow in low oxygen and high carbon dioxide environments makes it ideal for the internal cracks and holes of blue-veined cheeses. Penicillium roqueforti contributes to the distinctive flavour and texture of cheeses like Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and Danish blue.
The fungus produces proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes, which play a crucial role in cheese ripening. The proteolytic enzymes soften the curd and give the desired body to the cheese. Additionally, Penicillium roqueforti is responsible for the production of blue cheese flavouring, a type of enzyme-modified cheese. When placed into cream and aerated, it produces a concentrated blue cheese flavour that can also be replicated using other fat sources like coconut oil.
While Penicillium roqueforti is the most common species used in blue cheese production, other species like Penicillium camemberti are also significant in the cheese industry. Penicillium camemberti is used in the production of Camembert, Brie, and Cambozola cheeses. It forms a hard, white crust on these cheeses and gives them their distinctive flavours and soft, buttery textures. However, controlling the growth of this fungus is essential to maintain desirable flavour compounds and prevent bitterness.
The use of fungi like Penicillium in cheese ageing offers several advantages. Firstly, they provide unique flavours and textures that are characteristic of certain cheese varieties. Secondly, they contribute to the breakdown of complex structural elements in food, facilitating the release of substrates necessary for the growth of the fungi. This ability makes them valuable in food fermentation processes. Lastly, the use of fungal enzymes addresses the limited supply of calf rennet and ethical concerns surrounding the consumption of animal-based products.
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Frequently asked questions
Rennet is a complex set of enzymes produced in the stomachs of ruminant mammals. It is used to separate milk into solid curds and liquid whey, which is then used in the production of cheeses.
Enzymes used in cheese-making can be sourced from animals, plants, fungi, or microbial sources.
Some examples of non-animal rennet sources include fig juice, several species of Galium, dried caper leaves, nettles, thistles, and fungi such as Penicillium.
Besides rennet, other enzymes used in cheese-making include protease, lipase, lactase, and sulphydryl oxidase. These enzymes can improve flavor, extend shelf life, and reduce allergic properties of cheese.
