Bushra Griffith
Parmesan cheese is a hard, salty cheese with a gritty texture and a fruity and nutty flavour. It is often consumed grated over pasta or used in soups and risottos. Parmesan cheese is also known to have high concentrations of 2-heptanone and 2-nonanone, which are produced by the β-oxidation pathway of FFAs. This pathway is metabolically important as it allows some microorganisms to detoxify FFAs or metabolize them for energy. Interestingly, the presence of mould on cheese is not always undesirable. While mould growing on the cheese in your fridge may need to be cut off, mould is commonly used in the production of cheese and can even be safely consumed in some cases. For example, the thick white rind on Brie, which is formed by the growth of Penicillium candidum, is edible and adds to the flavour of the cheese. Similarly, Parmesan cheese has been found to be associated with Penicillium spp., particularly Penicillium section fasciculata, which includes the species P. solitum, P. crustosum, and P. verrucosum.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Parmesan cheese texture | Hard and gritty |
| Parmesan cheese taste | Fruity and nutty |
| Parmesan cheese consumption | Grated over pastas, soups, risottos or eaten as a snack |
| Parmesan cheese processing time | 2-4 years |
| Parmesan cheese aroma compounds | Free fatty acids (FFAs) |
| Parmesan cheese FFAs | Butanoic, hexanoic, and octanoic acids |
| Parmesan cheese FFAs aroma descriptors | Cheesy, sharp, rancid, sweaty, goat-like |
| Parmesan cheese mould | Less likely to be contaminated due to its hard and salty nature |
| Parmesan cheese mould type | Penicillium roqueforti |
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What You'll Learn
- Parmesan is a hard, salty cheese, so mould roots usually stay on the surface
- Microorganisms like mould are what make cheese, cheese
- Penicillium roqueforti spores are used in the oxidation study of fatty acids
- Mycotoxin contamination is a possible issue in the making of Italian grana cheese
- Some cheeses have a thick white rind on the outside—this is also a type of mould
Parmesan is a hard, salty cheese, so mould roots usually stay on the surface
Parmesan is a hard, salty cheese with a gritty texture and a fruity and nutty taste. It is usually consumed grated over pasta or used in soups and risottos. The cheese is produced from cows grazing on fresh grass and hay and has a processing time of up to 2-4 years. During the production of Parmesan cheese, the curd mass is salted by immersion in brine and then placed in a cool, ventilated room to mature. This process of ripening and the hard, dry nature of the cheese means that mould roots usually stay on the surface.
Mould, or microorganisms, thrive in wet environments and are less active in dry ones. This means that for the most part, mould will not be able to penetrate the surface of a hard, salty cheese like Parmesan. The same is true for a crumbly, long-aged cheddar, whereas a semisoft cheese like Havarti or a mild cheddar is more susceptible to mould growth.
While mould on cheese is often cut off and discarded, it is important to understand that mould is what makes cheese, well, cheese. Fresh cheeses like mozzarella, ricotta, and queso fresco are meant to be consumed soon after they are made, but most other cheeses get their distinct deliciousness and texture from the microbiological alchemy that occurs when mould, bacteria, and other microorganisms feed on the proteins and sugars present in milk.
In the case of Parmesan cheese, specifically, the variety known as Parmigiano Reggiano, mycotoxin-producing species of Penicillium and Aspergillus have been detected in the cheese crust and ripening room air. These species have the potential to cause mycotoxin contamination during the cheese-making process, which could be a risk to food safety. However, it is important to note that mould maintenance is a crucial part of a cheesemaker's job, ensuring that the right kind of mould is growing in the right place at the right time and intervening when necessary.
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Microorganisms like mould are what make cheese, cheese
Cheese is one of the few foods that contains extraordinarily high numbers of living, metabolising microbes. Each piece of cheese may contain as many as 10 billion microbes—more than there are people on Earth!
The first microbial settlers in milk are usually lactic acid bacteria (LABs). These bacteria feed on lactose, the sugar in milk, and produce acid, causing the milk to sour. This makes the milk inhospitable for many other microbes, including potential pathogens such as Escherichia coli. However, some microorganisms can abide in this acid environment, including certain yeasts like Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast). These microbes neutralise the acidity, allowing other bacteria to move in.
In most cheese varieties, the cheese microbiota is initially dominated by the starter culture. In some more complex cheese varieties, the starter microbiota is subsequently dominated by yeasts, and then surface mould/bacteria microbiota take over to facilitate ripening and ageing of the cheese.
The broad groups of cheese-making microbes include many varieties of bacteria, yeast, and filamentous fungi (moulds). Examples of mould species used in cheese-making include Penicillium roqueforti, Penicillium glaucum, and Penicillium camemberti (formerly known as Penicillium candidum).
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Penicillium roqueforti spores are used in the oxidation study of fatty acids
The role of Penicillium roqueforti spores in the oxidation study of fatty acids is an important area of research, particularly in understanding the aroma and flavour of cheeses. Free fatty acids (FFAs) are important to many varieties of cheese, especially Italian-style cheeses. FFAs are precursors to several aroma compounds, including aldehydes, methyl ketones, esters, and lactones.
An oxidation study of 14C-labelled palmitic (C16) and lauric (C14) acids revealed that successive β-oxidation cycles of long-chain fatty acids are involved in the generation of short-chain methyl ketones. This β-oxidation pathway is metabolically significant as it enables certain microorganisms to detoxify FFAs or metabolize them for energy. The study also found that methyl ketones are the major constituents in Parmesan cheese, although high concentrations of 2-heptanone and 2-nonanone indicate that other sources may be involved in their formation.
Further studies on the oxidation of fatty acids by Penicillium roqueforti spores have been conducted. One investigation found that when larger concentrations (20 μm) of fatty acids were used, part of the molecule was converted to methyl ketone, while another part was completely oxidized. These findings suggest that optimal conditions for the production of 2-heptanone, an important compound in the aroma and flavour of mold-ripened cheeses, can be achieved. Interestingly, the oxidation of octanoic acid was inhibited by substances like cyanide and carbon monoxide, and no ketone formation occurred under anaerobic conditions.
The ability of Penicillium roqueforti spores to convert octanoic acid to 2-heptanone is significant for the aroma and flavour development in mold-ripened cheeses. This conversion process is an example of how fatty acid oxidation by these spores contributes to the overall sensory characteristics of certain cheeses.
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Mycotoxin contamination is a possible issue in the making of Italian grana cheese
Parmesan cheese is a type of Italian grana cheese. It is made from cows grazing on fresh grass and hay and has a hard, gritty texture and a fruity and nutty taste. The minimum ripening time for Parmesan is 10 months, but it can be aged for two years or more. During the ripening process, the cheeses are turned at regular intervals, and the rinds are cleaned often. The relative humidity of the storehouses ranges between 72% and 88%, and the temperature is kept between 15 and 22 °C.
Italian grana cheese is highly susceptible to mycotoxin contamination due to the environmental conditions of warehouses during ripening. The development of filamentous fungi on the rind surface is common and can lead to the production of mycotoxins. Studies have detected the presence of mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A (OTA) and sterigmatocystin (STC) in grated grana-type cheeses available at the retail level. The occurrence of these mycotoxins is influenced by factors such as temperature and water activity (aw).
The growth of toxigenic fungi on cheese wheels poses a risk to consumers due to the potential production of different mycotoxins. While some mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin M1, are regulated in cheese, others are not. The concentration of mycotoxins often exceeds regulatory limits, including critical mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A, citrinin, and cyclopiazonic acid, which pose significant global health concerns.
To minimize mycotoxin contamination in Italian grana cheese, careful monitoring of hygienic and microbiological conditions, as well as proper cleaning practices, are essential. Additionally, the development of predictive models that account for the fungal infection cycle can help predict the risk of mycotoxin contamination during the cheese ripening process.
In summary, mycotoxin contamination is a possible issue in the making of Italian grana cheese, including Parmesan cheese. The environmental conditions during ripening and the growth of filamentous fungi can lead to the production of mycotoxins, which may pose a risk to consumer health. Therefore, it is crucial to implement effective monitoring and cleaning practices to minimize the contamination of Italian grana cheese with mycotoxins.
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Some cheeses have a thick white rind on the outside—this is also a type of mould
It is true that microorganisms like mould are what make cheese, well, cheese. Most cheeses owe their distinct deliciousness and texture to the microbiological alchemy that occurs when mould, bacteria, and other microorganisms feed on the proteins and sugars present in milk. However, it is important to note that this does not apply to fresh cheeses meant to be consumed soon after making, such as mozzarella, ricotta, and queso fresco.
Some cheeses, such as Brie, have a thick white rind on the outside, which is also a type of mould called Penicillium candidum. This mould is what gives Brie its savoury, mushroomy white rind, distinguishing it from other cheeses. During the cheese-making process, the cheesemaker will pat down the mould, flip the cheese, and repeat the process. This results in the formation of the white rind, which is not only safe to consume but also adds a unique flavour to the cheese.
It is worth noting that Parmesan cheese, known for its hard and gritty texture, can also develop mould. However, due to its dry and salty nature, mould roots generally do not penetrate deep into the cheese. Therefore, it is generally safe to cut off the mouldy portion and consume the rest of the cheese.
While mould on some cheeses can be safely consumed after cutting off the affected part, it is important to exercise caution. Different types of cheeses have varying levels of moisture, affecting how far mould roots can penetrate. For example, mould roots will have difficulty penetrating the surface of hard, salty cheeses like Parmesan but can infiltrate semi-soft cheeses like Havarti more easily. Therefore, it is crucial to consider the type of cheese and the extent of mould growth before deciding whether to cut off the mould or discard the cheese entirely.
In summary, while some cheeses with a thick white rind, like Brie, are safe to consume and even offer a unique flavour experience, it is important to assess the type of cheese and the extent of mould growth before deciding whether to remove the mouldy portion or discard the cheese altogether.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, parmesan cheese has been found to contain Penicillium roqueforti spores.
Penicillium is a type of mould that is commonly found in cheese, particularly in blue cheese.
In most cases, it is safe to consume cheese with small amounts of mould. However, it is important to remove the mouldy portion before consuming the cheese.
The presence of penicillium and other microorganisms contributes to the distinct flavour and texture of parmesan cheese through a process known as microbiological alchemy.
Yes, mycotoxin contamination has been identified as a possible issue during the production of Italian grana cheeses, including Parmigiano Reggiano. Mycotoxins are produced by certain species of Penicillium and can be harmful if consumed.
