Bushra Griffith
Cheese is a beloved food product worldwide, but the process of how it is made remains a mystery to many. The origins of cheese-making are unknown, but it is believed to have begun with the domestication of milk-producing animals, such as sheep, over 7,000 years ago. Today, cheese is made with a variety of milk types, including cow, sheep, goat, and even camel milk, each lending a unique flavour to the final product. The process of cheesemaking involves adding bacteria or acid to milk to curdle it, separating it into solid curds and liquid whey, and then adding salt to enhance flavour and regulate moisture. The curds are then pressed and shaped, and the cheese may be aged to develop its flavour further.
How Cheese is Made:
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Origin | Unknown, but the practice is closely related to the domestication of milk-producing animals, primarily sheep, which began 8-10,000 years ago |
| Earliest Evidence | Excavated clay sieves (holed pottery) from Poland and the Dalmatian Coast in Croatia, dated over 7,000 years old |
| Earliest Written Evidence | Sumerian cuneiform texts of the Third Dynasty of Ur, dated to the early second millennium BC |
| Ancient Evidence | Egyptian tomb drawings, ancient Greek literature, and Roman records |
| Traditional Process | Milk is collected from dairy farms, tested, filtered, and pasteurized; starter cultures are added, followed by rennet and other ingredients, then the mixture is cut and stirred to release whey, and finally, the curds are separated from the whey and shaped |
| Ingredients | Milk, cultures, coagulants, salt, and other flavour additives like spices, herbs, or wine |
| Milk Sources | Cow, goat, sheep, or buffalo; in theory, milk from any mammal can be used |
| Factory-Made Cheese | Overtook traditional cheesemaking during World War II and remains the primary source of cheese in America and Europe |
| World Production (2021) | 22.2 million tonnes of cheese produced from whole cow milk, with the US as the top producer (28%) |
| Carbon Footprint | 6-12 kg of CO2eq per kilogram of cheese, generally lower than beef or lamb |
| High Consumption Countries (2014) | France, Iceland, Finland, Denmark, and Germany, averaging 25 kg per person per year |
| Local Specialties | Paneer in South Asia, Rubing in Yunnan, China, and various Tibetan cheeses |
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What You'll Learn
Milk sources
Milk is the star ingredient in cheese. Most cheeses are made with whole milk, which can be either pasteurized or raw. The only type of milk that should not be used for cheesemaking is ultra-pasteurized milk, as it has been heated to such high temperatures that its bacteria and enzymes are destroyed, and it will not form a curd.
The type of milk used depends on the type of cheese being made. For example, Swiss, cheddar, and Gouda are made using cow's milk, while Roquefort, feta, petit basque, and manchego are made using sheep's milk. Goat's milk lends a distinctive tangy flavor to cheeses like Le Chevrot and French Bucheron, and is also known as chevre. Buffalo milk is the traditional choice for mozzarella, although most mass-produced varieties use cow's milk. More obscure types of milk can be used to make regional specialty cheeses, such as camel's milk, which is the basis for caravane cheese, first produced in Mauritania. Other cheeses can be made from horse or even yak's milk.
The source and combination of ingredients are what make different cheeses unique. For example, milk from Jersey or Guernsey cows is richer, sweeter, and makes more flavorful cheese than milk from Holsteins. Nigerian Dwarf and Nubian goats produce especially rich milk, high in butterfat, which is even richer than Jersey cow's milk. The actual level of butterfat in milk depends on the type of milk and the source animal's breed, weight, and diet. Milk fat is extremely important in the cheesemaking process, as the fatty acid compounds help cheese develop its full flavor potential.
Raw milk contains enzymes that contribute to the complexity of flavor and enhance the flavor of the cheese as it ages. However, it is very important that raw milk comes from healthy, well-treated animals, as it can be a breeding ground for harmful bacteria such as Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, and E. coli. It is also important to know and trust the source of any milk used, but especially so for raw milk.
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Curdling
Rennet is an enzyme complex traditionally extracted from the inner mucosa of the fourth stomach chamber of calves and other mammals. It causes the milk to set into a strong, rubbery gel, compared to the fragile curds produced by acidic coagulation alone. Rennet also allows curdling at a lower acidity, which is important as flavour-making bacteria are inhibited in high-acidity environments. Softer, smaller, and fresher cheeses are generally curdled with a higher proportion of acid to rennet than harder, larger, and longer-aged varieties.
The curds produced during the curdling process are then pressed and salted for preservation. Salt helps to draw moisture from the curd and firm the cheese's texture through interaction with its proteins. Different techniques, such as stretching, cheddaring, or washing, can be applied to the curds to influence the final product's texture and flavour.
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Separation
The separation of curds and whey is a crucial step in the cheesemaking process. Curds are solid, while whey is liquid. The amount of whey that is drained affects the moisture content and, consequently, the firmness of the cheese.
The separation of curds and whey is facilitated by the addition of rennet, which causes the milk to gel. Rennet is an enzyme complex that is genetically engineered through microbial bioprocessing. It is also found in the stomachs of ruminant animals, such as calves and other mammals, to help them digest milk. The addition of rennet causes the casein, the major milk protein, to precipitate. The milk fat is then trapped in a casein matrix.
Before the addition of rennet, milk is typically acidified (soured) to further facilitate the separation. This can be done by adding an acid, such as vinegar, or by adding bacteria in the form of a starter culture. The bacteria convert milk sugars into lactic acid, which also contributes to the flavour of the cheese.
Once the milk has gelled, cheesemakers cut the gel to allow the whey to come out. The curds are then stirred and heated to release more whey. The more the curds are cut, the smaller they become, and the more moisture is released. Thus, drier cheeses are cut more to form smaller curds, while moist cheeses are cut less to form larger curds.
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Flavouring
The flavour of cheese is influenced by several factors, including the type of milk used, the bacteria and mould, the butterfat content, processing, and ageing. For example, the same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) play a significant role in the eventual flavour of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, or Streptococcus genera. Swiss starter cultures, which include Propionibacterium freudenreichii, produce propionic acid and carbon dioxide gas bubbles during ageing, giving Emmental cheese its distinctive holes.
Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may also be used as flavouring agents. For instance, smoked cheese is any cheese that has been treated by smoke-curing, resulting in a yellowish-brown outer pellicle. Smoke-curing can be done through cold-smoking or hot-smoking, with the former taking up to a month and smoking the food at lower temperatures, while the latter partially or completely cooks the food at higher temperatures. Alternatively, artificial smoke flavouring and food colouring can be used to mimic the traditional smoke-curing process.
Enzyme-modified cheese (EMC) is another way to flavour cheese. EMC is a concentrated cheese flavour ingredient produced by treating cheese or its upstream ingredients with enzymes such as proteases, lipases, and esterases. The enzymes accelerate and intensify the ripening of the cheese, and they can be added during cheesemaking, after the cheese curds have been pressed, or even after the cheese has been naturally aged. EMCs were first made in the 1970s and are typically used in powder or paste form. They have an exaggerated taste profile compared to natural cheeses.
In addition to EMC, nature-identical or artificial cheese flavours are also chemically synthesized. However, creating a blend of synthesized compounds that accurately mimic the natural flavour and aroma of cheese is challenging due to the complexity of cheese flavour. The flavour of an EMC depends on the curds and the enzyme composition, and varying the amount of proteases and lipases can adjust the relative amounts of background notes and sharp fatty acid flavours.
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Aging
Affinage, the art of aging cheese, is one of the most important elements of the cheesemaking process. It is responsible for the distinct flavour, aroma, and texture of the cheese. While some cheeses are meant to be consumed fresh and have a mild, soft, and/or creamy flavour, other cheeses need to be aged to reach their desired consistency and flavour profile. The aging period varies from 3 months to 12 months or more, depending on the type of cheese. For example, a 21-year-old Parmesan cheese was recently auctioned off for charity.
The aging process is influenced by a variety of factors, including the microflora, the curd, and the enzymatic process. The most important agents in this process are bacteria, cultures, rennet, and salt. The temperature and relative humidity of the environment also play a crucial role in the aging process, with most cheeses being aged at 50 to 55°F (12 to 15°C). However, some cheeses, like brie, blue, and Roquefort, require lower temperatures of approximately 40 to 45°F (4 to 7°C).
During the aging process, the cheese goes through a series of maturation stages where the surface mould is allowed to grow, and the mould ripening of the cheese by fungi occurs. This process is characterized by complex physical, chemical, and microbiological changes that incorporate the agents of bacteria and enzymes of the milk, lactic culture, rennet, lipases, added moulds or yeasts, and environmental contaminants. The affineur, or the person responsible for the aging process, guides the aromatic profile and textural changes of the cheese.
The aging process can be as simple as putting cheese in a plastic bag, vacuum sealing it, and letting it age on a shelf. Alternatively, it can involve introducing different techniques to prime the surface of the cheese, such as coating it in lard and wrapping it in cheesecloth, or forming it into a square and vacuum sealing it. The affineur may also move the cheese between different environments, such as caves or cellars, to create the optimal conditions for aging.
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Frequently asked questions
The basic ingredients used in making cheese are milk, cultures, coagulants, and salt. The type of milk used depends on the type of cheese being made. For example, Swiss, cheddar, and Gouda are made using cow's milk, while Roquefort, feta, and manchego are made using sheep's milk.
The exact origins of cheese-making are unknown. However, it is believed to have begun over 7,000 years ago, possibly in Europe, Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara. The practice is closely linked to the domestication of milk-producing animals, particularly sheep, which began 8,000-10,000 years ago. One theory suggests that cheese was discovered accidentally when milk was stored in containers made from animal stomachs, causing the milk to curdle due to the rennet present in the stomachs.
The process of making cheese involves collecting milk, standardizing it by adding fat, cream, or protein, and then pasteurizing it to kill harmful bacteria. Next, starter cultures are added to convert lactose into lactic acid, affecting the flavour and texture of the cheese. A coagulant, such as rennet, is then added to help the milk turn into curds. The curds are cut, stirred, and heated to release whey, and then separated from the whey. The curds are then salted and pressed into a form to give them the desired shape and consistency. Finally, the cheese may be aged before it is ready to eat.
Cheese-making has evolved over the centuries, from its ancient origins to becoming a sophisticated enterprise in the early Roman era. After the fall of Rome, cheese was considered peasant fare in Europe for many centuries. With European colonisation, cheese spread to the Americas, and local varieties began to develop. In the twentieth century, large-scale factory-made cheese overtook traditional cheesemaking, particularly during and after World War II. Today, mass-produced cheese is common, but there is also a growing interest in farmstead and artisan cheeses.
